Human Prostate Essay Example

Human Prostate Essay 1 Introduction 1.1 The prostate The human prostate is a complex organ composed of glandular and non-glandular constructions, which are surrounded by a thin bed of connective tissue. It is located below the vesica and in forepart of the rectum, and surrounds the urethra. During embryogenesis, the prostate is formed through epithelial budding from the urogenital fistula, and undergoes extended ductal branch and ramification into the environing mesenchyme during pubescence. Prostate development during pubescence is regulated by male sex endocrines, in peculiar dihydrotestosterone. The prostate is a portion of the male generative system, but is non required for viability or birthrate. Its chief map is the secernment of the prostate fluid during interjection. Together with sperm cell and seminal cyst fluid, the prostate fluid constitutes the seeds and protects sperm from the sourness of the vaginal piece of land. A healthy grownup prostate has about the size and form of a walnut. The human prostate is really prone to pathology, particularly with progressing age. Expansion or hardening of the prostate, every bit good as elevated serum PSA degrees may bespeak upsets such as prostatitis, benign prostate hyperplasia ( BPH ) or prostatic malignant neoplastic disease. Prostatitis is an redness of the prostate secretory organ that can ensue in hurting, micturition jobs and sexual disfunctions. Acute and chronic signifiers of prostatitis can be distinguished, and are related to increase in serum PSA degrees, which normally decrease to normal values after intervention. Benign prostate hyperplasia ( BPH ) , characterized by increased proliferation of the prostate epithelial tissue and stroma, occurs spontaneously in work forces over the age of 30. A prevalence of about 100 % can be observed in work forces in their 9th decennary. The causes of BPH are mostly unknown, but there is a possible nexus to high fat diet, endocrines and household history. Although the symptoms of BPH resemble those of prostatic malignant neoplastic disease, it is non associated with prostate carcinoma and can be cured by medicine or surgery. BPH develops from the passage zone of the prostate, and its histological characteristics ( enlargement of the basal bed and extended stromal proliferation ) are distinguishable from those of prostatic malignant neoplastic disease. 1.2 Prostate malignant neoplastic disease, a soundless slayer We will write a custom essay sample on Human Prostate specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Human Prostate specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Human Prostate specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The fact that prostate malignant neoplastic disease is a complex and heterogenous disease unusually hampers its sensing, forecast and the elucidation of its causes. The exact incidences responsible for the oncoming of this malignance are hence still vague. However, owing to epidemiological surveies, some possible hazard factors could be assigned. They include hormonal instabilities, environmental influences, age, heredity, genetic sciences and nutrition. In general, one hazard factor entirely is non sufficient to trip prostatic malignant neoplastic disease, but the concurrency of assorted elements is necessary. Since most of the investigated prostate carcinomas do non demo the same familial changes, it is hard to specify the exact responsible events. In the industrialised universe, prostate glandular cancer is the most common malignance diagnosed in work forces, and its metastatic signifier represents the 2nd cause of cancer-related decease. Cancer statistics estimate that about 1 adult male out of 5 will be diagnosed with prostatic malignant neoplastic disease during his life-time, and merely one tierce of the diagnosed instances are deadly. Unfortunately, it is hard to foretell the result of a diagnosed prostate malignant neoplastic disease instance, because the class of the disease varies significantly from patient to patient. It is impossible to find whether the carcinoma will stay faineant or becomes clinically aggressive. Although most prostatic malignant neoplastic disease instances neer become deadly and the patients dice of other causes, prostate malignant neoplastic disease still does kill around 30000 work forces per twelvemonth in the United States harmonizing to the American Cancer Society5 The prostate malignant neoplastic disease incidence varies widely between states, which suggests the deduction of life style and dietetic factors in prostate malignant neoplastic disease development. The highest rates are observed in industrialised states, such as the United States and Western Europe, while South and East Asia display the lowest incidence rates4. In Austria, around 3700 new instances of prostate malignant neoplastic disease were registered in 1996, and in 2005, the incidence was more than 5000. However, since mortality in prostatic malignant neoplastic disease patients did non increase in this period, the rapid addition of ascertained prostate malignant neoplastic disease instances is ascribed to improved and earlier diagnosing by the intensive development and execution of the PSA testing trial. 1.3 Diagnostic methods for prostate malignant neoplastic disease Although prostate malignant neoplastic disease is non needfully lethal, early sensing and intervention is indispensable for a successful remedy. When diagnosed and treated in the initial, organ-confined phase, prostate malignant neoplastic disease has a singular remedy rate of more than 90 % . On the other manus, untreated prostate malignant neoplastic disease can progress to more aggressive signifiers, which invade and metastasize to other variety meats, and eventually ensue in decease. Therefore, considerable attempt has been put into the designation of predictive markers and development of effectual showing trials. A first indicant for prostate malignant neoplastic disease can be obtained by Digital Rectal Examination ( DRE ) and transrectal ultrasound ( TRUS ) , by which the status of the prostate is evaluated by its surface. Healthy prostate tissue is soft, whereas a malignant prostate appears instead difficult and frequently asymmetrical. 1.3.1 Serum PSA as index for prostate malignances The most widely spread testing method is the prostate-specific antigen ( PSA ) trial. PSA is produced entirely by prostatic epithelial cells and released with the ejaculatory fluid. Small sums of PSA can be traced in the blood, and elevated serum PSA degrees can bespeak prostatic redness, infection or malignant neoplastic disease. The PSA trial measures the sum of PSA in the blood in ng/mL, and a value of up to 4 ng/mL is considered to be normal for work forces of age around 60. However, since the PSA degree additions with age, PSA values of more than 4.5 ng/ml for work forces over 70 are besides considered to be normal. Therefore, it is besides of import to detect the addition of PSA degrees over clip. False positive ( elevated PSA degree, but no malignant neoplastic disease ) or false negative consequences ( normal PSA degree, but malignant neoplastic disease ) are the major disadvantages of the PSA trial ; hence, a subsequent acerate leaf biopsy is obligatory to decidedly govern out the presence of malignant neoplastic disease when the PSA degree is high. Alternatively, for better indicant of prostate malignant neoplastic disease, the ratio of free PSA to number PSA is measured. Malignant prostate cells produce more complexed PSA, i.e. PSA edge to other proteins in the blood. A low degree of free PSA in relation to entire PSA ( free + bound PSA ) might bespeak a cancerous prostate, whereas a high degree of free PSA compared to entire PSA might bespeak a normal prostate, BPH or prostatitis. 1.3.2 Tumor biopsy and histological scaling In order to govern out the type of malignant neoplastic disease, its location and phase of development, cell samples from several countries of the prostate are extracted with a biopsy acerate leaf and graded harmonizing to the Gleason scaling system. The Gleason scaling system assesses specific characteristics, such as the glandular construction, size and form, every bit good as the grade of invasion, and evaluates the prostate malignant neoplastic disease cells on a graduated table between 1 and 5 ( Figure 1 ) . A higher Gleason grade indicates a more aggressive and advanced malignant neoplastic disease. Gleason grade 1 and 2 represent well-differentiated malignant neoplastic disease cells with regular forms and chiseled boundaries that still resemble healthy prostate cells. The most common Gleason class is Gleason class 3 and depict cells that are moderately-differentiated. Gleason grade 4 and 5 correspond to poorly-differentiated malignant neoplastic disease cells with ill defined boundaries and bespeak a more aggressive malignant neoplastic disease. Since cancerous prostates are outstandingly heterogenous and consist of countries with different classs, a combined Gleason mark is necessary for a more exact theatrical production of the malignant neoplastic disease. The combined Gleason mark represents the amount of the two most common classs within a tumour. For illustration, if the most common form is grade 4, and the 2nd most common form grade 3, the combined Gleason mark is 7 ( i.e. 4+3 ) . Harmonizing to the Gleason mark, the tumour is so defined as well-differentiated ( Gleason score 2 4 ) , moderately-differentiated ( Gleason score 5 -6 ) or poorly-differentiated ( Gleason score 7 10 ) . In general, a lower combined Gleason mark indicates a less aggressive malignant neoplastic disease, whereas a higher Gleason mark signifies a more aggressive malignant neoplastic disease with hapless forecast for long-run endurance. Cancers with a high Gleason mark are more likely to hold already metastasized to other variety meats at the clip of diagnosing. Figure 1: Conventional diagram of the Gleason scaling system Conventional diagram of the Gleason scaling system ( courtesy of Dr. D.F. Gleason, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Integrated design courtesy of Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center 1.4 The class of prostate malignant neoplastic disease Most prostatic tumours grow really easy and remain faineant for many old ages, such that the bulk of work forces diagnosed with prostate malignant neoplastic disease dice of other causes than prostatic malignant neoplastic disease. The clinical class of prostatic malignant neoplastic disease is characterized by several phases ( Figure 2 ) . Potential precursor lesions, referred to as prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia ( PIN ) , can be observed in work forces already in their mid-twentiess, and their incidence additions with patient age. Although there is no definite grounds for PIN being the precursor of prostate malignant neoplastic disease, it is considered to be closely related to it. Most normally, PIN lesions arise in the peripheral zone of the prostate, with secretory epithelial cells get downing to turn in an uncontrolled mode, organizing little bunchs of malignant neoplastic disease cells. The clumps consist of luminal epithelial cells with atomic and structural atypia, but integral basal cell bed and cellar membrane. The multifocal nature and chromosomal abnormalcies of PIN lesions resemble those of invasive carcinoma. Since PIN lesions do non bring forth increased degrees of serum PSA, they can be detected merely in biopsy samples, and non through blood proving. Two signifiers of PIN can be distinguished harm onizing to their badness low class ( LG ) and high class ( HG ) PIN. Slowly, but increasingly, high class PIN lesions farther develop to invasive carcinoma, with cancerous cells distributing into the stroma around the prostate tissue. This is facilitated by the loss of the basal epithelial tissue. By and large, the visual aspect of HG PIN precedes the visual aspect of invasive carcinoma by at least 10 old ages. The concluding measure is the acquisition of the ability to last in the absence of androgens. The ab initio hormone-responsive malignant neoplastic disease cells become androgen independent and invade proximate variety meats ( e.g. seminal cysts or the rectum ) , or metastasise via the blood stream or the lymphatic system to more distant variety meats. The most common sites of metastasis are castanetss, lymph nodes, rectum and vesica. Clinically, morphologically and molecular genetically, prostate malignant neoplastic disease shows extensive heterogeneousness. One cancerous secretory organ can incorporate non-cancerous cells every bit good as multiple malignant focal point, and tumours of the same phase can demo unusually different clinical classs. 1.4.1 Prostate malignant neoplastic disease induction Much attempt has been put into clarifying the factors responsible for the oncoming of prostate malignant neoplastic disease. However, the exact events associated with prostate malignant neoplastic disease induction still remain mostly unknown. Many hypotheses are based on chronic infection or chronic inflammatory diseases, which are thought to be the cause of approximately 20 % of all human malignant neoplastic diseases, including prostate malignant neoplastic disease, . Exposure to environmental factors, viral or bacterial infective agents or dietetic carcinogens, every bit good as hormonal instabilities, can take to prostate tissue harm. Subsequently, as an effort to renew lost or injured tissue, prostate epithelial cells proliferate at a higher rate, giving rise to a lesion called proliferative inflammatory wasting ( PIA ) . PIA is non merely characterized by increased cell proliferation, but besides by extended infiltration of inflammatory cells. PIA is thought to be a possible precursor of prostate intraepithelial neoplasia ( PIN ) , and hence considered as a precancerous lesion. The hypothesis that PIA and PIN are precursors to prostate malignant neoplastic disease is supported by the fact that both lesions derive fr om the peripheral zone, like prostate carcinoma, and are found in many extremist prostatectomy samples. Another hypothesis for prostate malignant neoplastic disease induction proposes unbalanced interaction between smooth musculus and epithelial tissue. Homeostatic epithelial/stromal interactions play an indispensable function in the growing of the normal prostate, whereas break of this homeostasis has been found in the neoplastic prostate. Familial harm in the prostate epithelial tissue potentially leads to interrupt signaling to the next stroma, which in bend, fails to signal suitably back to the epithelial tissue. Therefore, ordinance of prostatic epithelial growing and distinction is increasingly lost, ensuing in uncontrolled proliferation that contributes to tumorigenesis. Other hypotheses propose the deduction of prostate malignant neoplastic disease primogenitor cells with root cell belongingss. These primogenitor cells, which make out merely 0,1 % of the entire prostate cells, are thought to be present in a prostate root cell niche at the cellar membrane of the prostate secretory organ and can be characterized by several root cell markers, such as CD133, root cell antigen ( Sca-1 ) or prostatic root cell antigen ( PSCA ) . They besides have basal cell features, such as androgen-independency due to miss of AR, and look K5, K14, p63, anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and telomerase. The primogenitor cells are thought to bring forth intermediate cells that farther differentiate to neuroendocrine and luminal secretory epithelial cells. Deregulated signaling in these multipotent root cells or the intermediate cells perchance affects their distinction and consequences in limitless cell division and reduced programmed cell death. 1.4.2 Prostate malignant neoplastic disease patterned advance The trademark of advanced prostate malignant neoplastic disease is the passage from androgen-dependence to androgen-independence. Like the normal prostate, early phases of prostate malignant neoplastic disease require the presence of androgen for development, growing and endurance. The chief androgen circulating in the serum is testosterone. In the prostate epithelial tissue, testosterone is converted by the enzyme 5-a-reductase to its metabolic signifier dihydrotestosterone ( DHT ) , and exerts its physiological map through the androgen receptor ( AR ) , a member of the steroid endocrine superfamily of ligand-activated receptors. The pioneering work of Huggins and Hodges has shown that prostate malignant neoplastic disease is inhibited by riddance of androgen. As a effect, androgen extirpation therapy has been established as an efficient intervention option for early disease phases. In contrast, tumour cells are feasible in low androgen degrees in advanced or stubborn disease, which renders hormone extirpation therapy at ulterior phases ineffective. Despite extended probe, the mechanisms taking to androgen-independent disease are still non to the full understood. It is ill-defined whether the ability to proliferate and last in the absence of androgen is acquired by tumour cells in advanced phases of the disease, or whether emasculation degrees of androgen enforce a selective force per unit area and supply a growing advantage for tumour cells that are already androgen-independent for some ground. Sing the root cell hypothesis for malignant neoplastic disease, it is proposed that the prostate malignant neoplastic disease root or primogenitor cells are capable of continuously providing the tumour with limitless cell populations by distinguishing into androgen-dependent every bit good as androgen-independent cells, therefore supplying tumour stuff that is non affected by androgen-depletion therapy. Most surveies, though, were focused on androgen and its blood relation receptor, uncovering abundant information on their possible functions in the class of the disease, . However, the acquisition of androgen-independence is besides possible through mechanisms that wholly bypass androgen map. Ligand-independent mechanisms that induce AR signaling indirectly include cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-8, and neuropeptides released by neuroendocrine cells. The presence of neuroendocrine cells has been shown to be frequent in androgen-refractory prostate malignant neoplastic disease, and their tumor-promoting consequence is based on the secernment of neuropeptides such as 5-hydroxytryptamine or bombesin, which can increase the proliferation of neighbouring cells, leting them to turn in a low-androgen environment. It has been shown that secretory proteins from neuroendocrine cells can increase the degrees of active AR and bring on the NF-kB tract in LNCaP cells. A mechanism taking to androgen independency, but wholly short-circuiting the AR tract, is the acquisition of opposition to apoptosis by prostate malignant neoplastic disease cells.. This can be attained through several mechanisms, such as overexpression of anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 household, loss or mutant of p53 map, inactivation of PTEN and subsequent activation of the PI3K/Akt tract, every bit good as overexpression of inhibitors of programmed cell death ( IAPs ) . Other factors, such as tumour hypoxia, increased autocrine and paracrine release of growing factors ( EGF, IGF, TGF- A ; Atilde ; Y1 ) , every bit good as cytokines and inflammatory go-betweens such as TNF-a, IL-1, IL-6 and IL-8 besides lead to apoptosis equivocation. 1.5 Curative options Initially, when the growing of the prostate tumour is localized and dependent on androgens, patients can be efficaciously treated by androgen-deprivation. The handiness of testosterone, which prostate malignant neoplastic disease cells need to turn, can be reduced by surgery ( extremist or partial prostatectomy ) , emasculation ( hormonal therapy ) , or radiation therapy. In most of the instances, a arrested development of the tumour can be achieved, and the remittals normally last 2 to 3 old ages ( Zitat ) . However, active surveillance by regular DRE and PSA trials, every bit good as periodic biopsies are necessary to carefully track for marks of disease patterned advance, because in the bulk of instances, recurrent tumours arise. They are normally more aggressive and accompanied by unsuitably restored androgen signaling and androgen-independence, doing androgen-deprivation therapy ineffective. Chemotherapy is non the primary therapy for prostate malignant neoplastic disease, but instead an option when the malignant neoplastic disease has metastasized to other parts of the organic structure. Unfortunately, it is non really efficient and hence, recurrent and metastasized prostate malignant neoplastic disease is considered as incurable with a life anticipation of 16-18 months. 1.6 Familial alterations happening in prostate malignant neoplastic disease On the molecular degree, the development of prostate malignant neoplastic disease is a complex and multi-step procedure, necessitating the interaction of several events, such as mutants, cistron elaboration, overexpression of transforming genes or loss of tumour suppresser cistrons. Since prostate tumours are heterogenous, they can incorporate multiple focal point that are genotypically distinguishable from each other, exposing benign secretory organs, preneoplastic lesion ( PIN ) every bit good as neoplastic focal point in one tumour. Therefore, it is hard to find the exact molecular participants involved in the induction and each measure of disease patterned advance, although legion surveies have been focused on this issue. So far, no specific prostatic malignant neoplastic disease cistron has been identified, but epidemiological surveies have revealed some cistrons that appear often in familial prostate malignant neoplastic disease, such as ELAC2, cistrons interceding the host r esponse to infections ( e.g. RNASEL and MSR1 ) , or cell rhythm checkpoint cistrons ( e.g. NBS1, CHEK2 ) . However, they seem to be non merely restricted to familial prostate malignant neoplastic disease, but have been reported to be implicated in sporadic prostate malignant neoplastic disease every bit good. Therefore, it is non possible to separate between familial and sporadic disease on the molecular degree, or to delegate high prostate malignant neoplastic disease hazard cistrons . However, most prostate malignant neoplastic diseases are sporadic and expose a battalion of familial alterations, including polymorphisms, bodily mutants and chromosomal abnormalcies. Polymorphisms are non merely associated with an increased susceptibleness to develop prostatic disease, but besides with advanced prostate malignant neoplastic disease. The most of import and most frequent polymorphism happening in prostatic malignant neoplastic disease patients affects the androgen receptor polyglutamine repetitions [ ( CAG ) n ] , which have been reported to be significantly shortened specifically in high class and metastatic prostate malignant neoplastic disease, , . In advanced prostate malignant neoplastic disease, besides the cistrons for the vitamin D receptor, p21 and p27 have been reported to be affected by polymorphisms. Mutants have been found in legion familial venue, and characteristic chromosomal changes are associated with each disease phase. They affect cistrons that play of import functions in different signaling tracts, and by and large result either in inactivation of tumour suppresser cistrons or over-activation of transforming genes. 1.6.1 Genes modulating normal prostate development 1.6.1.1 The androgen receptor is required for steroid hormone action The androgen receptor is a member of the superfamily of ligand-activated steroid receptors. Its functional spheres consist of an N-terminal sphere interceding the transcriptional activity, a DNA-binding sphere ( DBD ) , a flexible joint part and a C-terminal ligand-binding sphere ( LBD ) . The N-terminal sphere contains a transcriptional activation part ( AF-1 ) and is responsible for interaction with co-regulators ( co-activators and co-repressors ) . It contains long poly-glutamine and poly-glycine repetitions, which undergo important shortening in aggressive malignant neoplastic diseases 21. The DNA-binding sphere contains a cysteine-rich part with two zinc-fingers, and recognizes androgen-responsive elements ( AREs ) on the foil parts of AR-target cistrons. The hinge part of the AR includes a atomic translocation signal, every bit good as phosphorylation and acetylation sites. And eventually, the C-terminal sphere contains a 2nd transcriptional activation part ( AF-2 ) and is res ponsible for ligand binding. In the absence of endocrine, the AR is chiefly located in the cytol and is inactivated through binding to heat daze proteins ( HSPs ) . Binding of endocrine to the LBD evokes AR conformation alterations, phosphorylation, dimerization, dissociation from HSPs and translocation to the karyon, where it binds to the AREs of AR-regulated cistrons. Additionally, a composite of co-activators and co-repressors, every bit good as chromatin remodeling proteins are required for ordinance of the AR transcriptional activity. 1.6.1.2 Nkx3.1 is the earliest known marker for prostate epithelial tissue Nkx3.1 encodes a extremely prostate-specific homeobox cistron that is critical for all facets of a functional prostate. It is associated with each phase of prostate development, runing from embryologic prostate formation and ripening to adult map and individuality. Nkx3.1 is the earliest known molecular marker of the prostate epithelial tissue and purely governs the most initial stairss of prostate formation. It is hypothesized that Nkx3.1 look provides a pre-determination of the urogenital fistula epithelial tissue into distinguishable prostate and non-prostatic parts during embryogenesis, and steadfastly regulates early postpartum ductal morphogenesis. Furthermore, it is required for secretory protein production and regulates prostate epithelial cell proliferation for care of the differentiated province of the normal prostate. Within the prostate, Nkx3.1 look is restricted to the karyon of luminal epithelial cells, but is absent in radical epithelial cells, which are found between the luminal cells and the cellar membrane. Its look in the prostate epithelial tissue precedes that of the AR, but the subsequent care of Nkx3.1 protein degrees is dependent on AR signaling. It has been shown that Nkx3.1 look is significantly down-regulated after emasculation or androgen-depletion ; nevertheless, the mechanisms for the ordinance of Nkx3.1 look by AR signaling are ill-defined. Like other written text factors, Nkx3.1 binds to downstream mark cistrons through specific consensus sequences in order to modulate their look. However, the exact mechanisms ( adhering as a monomer or as a dimer ) and the individuality of regulated cistrons are mistily known. Potential mark cistrons are smooth musculus a-actin ( SMA ) and prostate-specific antigen ( PSA ) . Besides its function in the normal prostate as the drive force for ductal branch and secretory protein production, Nkx3.1 is supposed to hold tumour suppresser maps, although it is non defined as a authoritative tumour suppresser cistron. Alternatively, it appears to instead forestall the induction of prostate malignant neoplastic disease by equilibrating between cell proliferation and cell decease. Nkx3.1 provides a molecular nexus between the mechanisms that control normal prostatic distinction and those that lead to uncontrolled epithelial proliferation during carcinogenesis. 1.6.2 Genes involved in induction and early phases of prostate malignant neoplastic disease 1.6.2.1 Loss of Nkx3.1 map is associated with prostate malignant neoplastic disease induction The human Nkx3.1 cistron maps to the minimum part of chromosome 8p21, a prostate malignant neoplastic disease hot topographic point , which undergoes allelomorphic omission in 60-80 % of prostate tumours, , , . Loss of Nkx3.1 map is associated with prostate malignant neoplastic disease induction and occurs every bit early as in PIN lesions. As Nkx3.1 is indispensable for normal development and map of the prostate, its inactivation consequences in defects in canal formation and secretory protein production. Furthermore, the ordinance of prostatic epithelial cell proliferation is disrupted, taking to the development of prostate intraepithelial neoplasia that increases in badness with progressing age, as has been modeled in transgenic mice by targeted silencing of Nkx3.1, . At nowadays, merely allelomorphic omission of the venue incorporating Nkx3.1 has been found in human prostate tumours, but there is no grounds for the presence of mutants in the coding sequence of the staying Nkx3.1 transcript. Rather, loss of Nkx3.1 map consequences from epigenetic inactivation through loss of protein look during prostatic malignant neoplastic disease development. Despite the fact that loss of Nkx3.1 map is a predisposing factor for developing prostatic malignant neoplastic disease, this event entirely is non sufficient to drive tumorigenesis. It is instead hypothesized that collaborating events such as loss of other tumour suppresser cistrons like PTEN, are necessary to originate malignant neoplastic disease. 1.6.2.2 Overexpression of c-myc contributes to tumorigeneity and androgen-independence C-myc is a critical regulator of development, distinction and cell growing, and its mark cistrons are involved in many cellular maps such as cell rhythm, programmed cell death, protein synthesis, and cell metamorphosis. The c-myc protein contains a possible transactivation sphere within its N-terminus and a helix-loop-helix leucine slide fastener ( HLH/LZ ) sphere with a dimerization site at its C-terminal terminal. C-myc action is regulated through binding of Mad/Max proteins, Amplification of the human chromosome 8q24, which contains the c-myc cistron, is one of the most common familial changes happening in a broad assortment of malignant neoplastic diseases. Increased c-myc protein and activity have been found in a important per centum of prostate tumours ( 11-40 % ) , , in all phases of the disease runing from PIN to more advanced and metastatic malignant neoplastic disease, . Besides elaboration of the c-myc venue, besides chromosomal translocations or point mutants of the c-myc cistron lead to increased activation of c-myc. However, the precise functional function of c-myc in prostate malignant neoplastic disease is non to the full understood. It has been shown that c-myc is able to bring on telomerase activity, which is required for care of telomere length, and therefore contributes to the immortality of tumour cells. This confers a proliferative advantage to malignant cells by leting them to turn under limited growing factor conditions. Furthermore, it has been proposed that the AR regulates c-myc at a posttranscriptional degree, and that c-myc is required for androgen-dependent growing at early malignant neoplastic disease phases. At subsequently phases, c-myc perchance contributes to androgen-independent growing of prostate malignant neoplastic disease cells, which is indicated by the presence of significantly increased c-myc elaboration after anti-androgen intervention and the growing of androgen-dependent LNCaP cells without androgen stimulationz. With enhanced c-myc activity, the cells are able to get the better of the cell rhythm obstruction imposed by the suppression of AR signaling. Several lines of grounds have shown that overexpression of c-myc alone is sufficient to bring on PIN and prostatic malignant neoplastic disease in transgenic mice, . However, the effects of c-myc seem to be contradictory, because on the one manus, it drives cell proliferation and contributes to tumorigenesis, but on the other manus, it has pro-apoptotic activity, peculiarly in limited growing factor conditions. However, other endurance signals and secondary cooperating effects can short-circuit programmed cell death driven by c-myc overexpression. A proposed cooperating molecular event implicated in the patterned advance of c-myc-driven prostate malignant neoplastic disease is loss of Nkx3.1. Both events are proposed to complement each other and appear at different clip points during the passage from PIN to malignant neoplastic disease in a mouse theoretical account 39. This is besi

English Longbow - Hundred Years War

English Longbow - Hundred Years' War Longbow - Origins: While bows have been used for hunting and warfare for thousands of years, few achieved the fame of the English Longbow. The weapon first rose to prominence when it was deployed by the Welsh during the Norman English invasions of Wales. Impressed by its range and accuracy, the English adopted it and began conscripting Welsh archers into military service. The longbow ranged in length from four feet to in excess of six. British sources usually require the weapon to be longer than five feet to qualify. Longbow - Construction: Traditional longbows were constructed from yew wood which was dried for one to two years, with it slowly being worked into shape over that time. In some cases, the process could take as long as four years. During the period of the longbows use, shortcuts were found, such as wetting the wood, to speed up the process. The bow stave was formed from half of a branch, with the heartwood on the inside and the sapwood to the outside. This approach was necessary as the heartwood was able to better resist compression, while the sapwood performed better in tension. The bow string was typically linen or hemp. Longbow - Accuracy: For its day the longbow possessed both long range and accuracy, though seldom both at once. Scholars estimate the longbows range at between 180 to 270 yards. It is unlikely however, that accuracy could be ensured beyond 75-80 yards. At longer ranges, the preferred tactic to unleash volleys of arrows at masses of enemy troops. During the 14th and 15th centuries, English archers were expected to shoot ten aimed shots per minute during battle. A skilled archer would be capable of around twenty shots. As the typical archer was provided with 60-72 arrows, this permitted three to six minutes of continuous fire. Longbow - Tactics: Though deadly from a distance, archers were vulnerable, particularly to cavalry, at close range as they lacked the armor and weapons of the infantry. As such, longbow equipped archers were frequently positioned behind field fortifications or physical barriers, such as swamps, which could afford protection against attack. On the battlefield, longbowmen were frequently found in an enfilade formation on the flanks of English armies. By massing their archers, the English would unleash a cloud of arrows on the enemy as they advanced which would strike down soldiers and unhorse armored knights. To make the weapon more effective, several specialized arrows were developed. These included arrows with heavy bodkin (chisel) heads which were designed to penetrate chain mail and other light armor. While less effective against plate armor, they generally were able to pierce the lighter armor on knights mount, unhorsing him and forcing him to fight on foot. To speed up their rate of fire in battle, archers would remove their arrows from their quiver and stick them in the ground at their feet. This permitted a smoother motion to reload after each arrow. Longbow - Training: Though an effective weapon, the longbow required extensive training to use effectively. To make sure that deep pool of archers always existed in England, the population, both rich and poor, were encouraged to hone their skills. This was furthered by the government through edicts such King Edward Is ban on sports on Sunday which was designed to ensure that his people practiced archery. As the draw force on the longbow was a hefty 160–180 lbf, archers in training worked their way up to the weapon. The level of training required to be an effective archer discouraged other nations from adopting the weapon. Longbow - Usage: Rising to prominence during the reign of King Edward I (r. 1272–1307), the longbow became a defining feature of English armies for the next three centuries. During this period, the weapon aided in winning victories on the Continent and in Scotland, such as Falkirk (1298). It was during the Hundred Years War (1337–1453) that the longbow became legend after it played a key role in securing the great English victories at Crà ©cy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415). It was, however, the weakness of the archers, which cost the English when they were defeated at Patay in (1429). Beginning in the 1350s, England began to suffer a shortage of yew from which to make bow staves. After expanding the harvest, the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1470, which required each ship trading in English ports to pay four bow staves for each ton of goods imported. This was later expanded to ten bow staves per ton. During the 16th century, bows began to be replaced by firearms. While their rate of fire was slower, firearms required much less training and permitted leaders to quickly raise effective armies. Though the longbow was being phased out, it remained in service through the 1640s and was used by Royalist armies during the English Civil War. Its last use in battle is believed to have been at Bridgnorth in October 1642. While England was the only nation to employ the weapon in large numbers, longbow-equipped mercenary companies were used throughout Europe and saw extensive service in Italy.

Event project management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Event project management - Assignment Example Operations going down in an event ought to be executed efficient and effective. According to (â€Å"Events Feasibility and Development†, 2011), event project management has to develop an excellent strategy that will ensure events do meet their objectives as stated. However, some objectives do contradict with the mission of an event this should not be the sole reason for an event failure. Models have been developed to assist event managers in the process of planning. Planning for an event go beyond the literary word and involves a series of activities ranging from been awarded permits by relevant authorities to the closure of an event. A well informed and experienced event manager should always be aware of the possibility of activities planned for an event failing, and therefore, proper fall-back plan should be in place to salvage the moment. It has been argued that all over the years that an event cannot be rated as successful either by a brilliant plan or execution but how th e event ends is what can be used to gauge (Burke, 2011). Adoption of models like events management body of knowledge (EMBOK) and Event Plan and Archive Review System (EPRAS) can assist in event planning. Both are useful tools for event to be successful, however, conflict arises on how one model prefers planning and execution ought to be done. Therefore, it would be wise to incorporate elements that are applicable to a planned event from the two models, so as to achieve objectives of the events. In every organization, it must be guided by values that are deemed to be controlling the flow of operations within the organization. The group is geared towards St. Patrick’s Day parade. It is in it preparation stage, putting all pieces together waiting for the event that will be going down in March. As a team, principles guiding the activities should be in place. For instance, the team should hold a couple of meetings to air and share new

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 9

Marketing - Essay Example The main purpose of this exercise is to enforce marketing strategies that could allow the manager to take strategic decisions on various dynamics in the marketing of voice- recognition devices software (VRD) in the domestic market. â€Å"Interactive Voice Recognition or Voice Recognition Information is one of the most common telephone functions in use across the business community and is capable of bringing remarkable benefits to your company. Interactive Voice Recognition allow 24 hour access to a company from its customers Interactive Voice Recognition its phone system.† (Interactive voice recognition, 2005). Coming now to the actual exercise, what Marketing Games actually means to do is to put â€Å"you in the driving seat of a fictitious business. You have been brought in by the CEO to develop a winning market strategy that will turn the business around.† (The big marketing game, 2010). Thus the main objective of this game would be in terms of the overriding factors that contribute to profits/losses of the business, and the ways and means by which the losses could be turned around into profits. It also seeks to lower operating costs, increase productivity and ensure better all round performance. Another major consideration that needs to be taken up is also in terms of competitors, since our business development and growth is also dependent upon them, in that the business development of Speakeasy is also linked with that of its competitors who lay stakes on market shares, customer segments and volume of business and off takes. Thus, it is also necessary to predict possible competitive forays and adopt ways and means that could counter these effectively. Principally, â€Å"Voice recognition software programs work by analyzing sounds and converting them to text.† (Voice Recognition Software: An Introduction, 2009, p.1). There are only four makers of this VRD in the market. One is the product

Mencius On Human Nature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mencius On Human Nature - Essay Example To account for how some people develop bad character in life despite having been born with the disposition to do good, Mencius argued that, just as water can be manipulated and forced to flow against the low ground, it is also possible to manipulate human nature to be bad. Mencius gave the following explanation to show that human nature is naturally good.Mencius argued that human beings are born with the virtue of benevolence (heart of compassion/feeling for others), virtue of Righteousness (the feeling of disdain), the virtue of propriety (feeling of respect for others), and lastly the virtue of wisdom (the heart of right and wrong). To demonstrate what he means by claiming that human beings are born with these four virtues, Mencius gave the following example to show that every human person is born with the virtue of benevolence.In this example, Mencius argued that if people saw a child about to fall into a well, they would all, without exception, instantaneously have a feeling of s orrow and fear. Mencius concluded that this fact shows that all human beings are born with the virtue of benevolence or the ability to feel compassion for other people. Another example that can be given to show that human beings are born with some virtues is how people, all over the world, are opposed to some immoral actions.For instance, people all over the world, irrespective of their cultural, religious, political, or educational backgrounds oppose some unethical practices like corruption and murder of innocent people.

Achieving Competitive Advantage In The Biotechnology Sector Commerce Essay

Achieving Competitive Advantage In The Biotechnology Sector Commerce Essay Biotechnology can be generally defined as the use of living things to create products or to do tasks for human beings. Biotechnology or biotech is used in industry, medicine and agriculture to produce foods, medicine, and test for diseases and remove wastes. (Biotechnologyonline, n.d) As such, there are different types of biotech such as green technology, red technology, and white technology and Bio fuels. In this report, we will have an insight into each of these branches of biotech and use various analytical tools to evaluate how knowledge management is playing a role in creating competitive advantage for companies in the sector. In so doing, we shall look at the Green biotech, Red biotech, White biotech and bio fuel respectively. Green Biotechnology Green technology, otherwise known as plant or agricultural technology is a branch of biotechnology (biotech) which involves the introduction of foreign genes into economically important species, resulting in crop improvement and the production of novel products in plants. (123biotech, n.d.). To better understand the role of knowledge management in harnessing a competitive advantage in this branch of biotechnology, we will take Monsanto as case example. Monsanto is the worlds leading green technology company ahead of rival such as DuPont. (SmartMoney, 2009). The company specialises in breeding (improving the genetic base through technology of crops thus increase yield and genetic engineering (by enhancing generic traits in crops such as insect resistance, herbicide tolerance and drought-tolerance). (SmartMoney, 2009 and Monsanto, n.d.) As with its sister braches such as bioinformatics, white technology(industrial biotechnology), red technology(pharmaceuticals) as well as biofuels, green technology and companies associated with it like Monsanto, are not left unscathed by critics. For instance, Monsanto and its counterpatrs , through its use of plant technology has been criticised of endangering human, the environment and socio-economic.( Friends of the earth, 2006). Significance of Green Technology However, the following advantages are beign celebrated by its supporters: Protection of Crops: for instance, the AT-DBF2 gene from Arabidopsis Thaliana crop injected into plants to enable them withstands Osmotic stress such as drought, salt and stress. (PNAS, n.d.) Increase Crop yield: during the teething years of biotechnology in term of Genetically Modified Food, there has been a widespread criticism of GMO claiming that GM Crops do not increase crop yield, that on the contrary it, reduces it. (Truth about Trade and Technology, 2009). These claims were dismissed by the then USA president Jimmy Carter who stated that, responsible biotechnology is not the enemy; starvation is. (Biotechnology Industry Organisation, n.d.)His favourable stance towards green biotechnology because of organisms like the Bacillus Thuringiensis used to produce the BT-corn. Introduces in 1996, the Bt corn has the potential to simplify management and effectively control corn borers throughout the season thus increasing its yield. (College of Agriculture, n.d.) Improved Food Quality: an example of this was the invention of the Golden Rice by Prof Potrykus and Prof. Beyer of ETH-Zurich and University of Freiburg respectively. The Golden rice is believed to alleviate Vitamin A deficiency in young people especially in the developing world. (Golden Rice, n.d.) Another example is the Maltogenic Amylase used for Retardation of staling in baked food, such as bread and cakes. (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1997) Having had an insight about how green technology functions, its pros and cons, it is now essential to discover how companies like Monsanto use knowledge management in harnessing and safeguarding innovation in order to create a sustainable competitive advantage against rivals like DuPont. Knowledge Management as a competitive advantage vehicle. To understand the role knowledge management in achieving competitive advantage for biotech companies such as Monsanto, lets apply the Resource-Based View of strategy coined by Grant (1991citied in Henry, 2008). This analysis seeks to analyse how a company exploits its resources to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage against its rivals in the industry. (Henry, 2008) A resource-based view of strategy analysis Consumer Confidence, First Mover Advantage, Tap blue Oceans, CAPABILITY Fund expensive RD, New Product Development RESOURCES Finances, Experts, Human Capital COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Knowledge power, Experience curve STRATEGY Differentiation (Grant 1991 cited in Henry 2008) Step 1: Resources: Biotech industries such as Monsanto go beyond the ordinary in Identifying and attaining young talent; because technology can easily be rendered obsolete, there is always the never-ending necessity to pool talent and innovate. Thus, biotech companies like Monsanto are in collaboration with renowned sciences universities like Truman State University to recruit outstanding students with sound sciences background. (Monsanto, n.d.).Furthermore, with their immense finance capability, they are able to fund and exploit these talents. Step 2: Capability: with their finance abilities, these biotech companies are able to fund rigorous Research and Development: Monsanto reported spend $2.6m dollars a day in research and development on how breeding and genetic engineering could develop corn, cotton and soybean seeds that yield more bountiful and nutritious crops and protect against bugs and weeds. (SmartMoney, 2009)This paids off has the company as been able to develop leading brands such as Acceleron, Roundup Ready,Asgrow and Yieldgard for plant resistance to osmotic stress as well as De Ruiter Seeds,Dekalb and Deltapine(Monsanto, n.d.) Step 3: Competitive Advantage: consequently, Monsanto is able to acquire a sustainable competitive advantage due to its ability to create Knowledge power and experience curve on producing competitive and fast selling products like its renowend leading brands like , Acceleron and Roundup Ready Step 4: Strategy: as a result, Monsanto adopt a differentiation strategy. This diferentiation strategy is typical of biotech companies with exception to biofuel companies as they end result; fuel, once drilled and refined is standard worldwide. Step 5: Bridging any resources Gaps: this calls for proactiveness from the part of the company as it involves identifying where the company is weak and formulating adequate strategy to address such weaknesses or resource deficeincies. For instance, tapping blue oceans or untouched markets to increase the companys economies of scale (Henry, 2008) Knowledge Protection in Biotech Use of copyright and licensing: to safeguard knowledge and innovation the company licenses seed germplasm or biotechnology traits to approximately 200 seed partners in the United States. (Monsanto, 2009) In summary, it can be argued that because of the level of technological innovation that occurs in the biotechnology such as green technology, its both a key and critical success factor for company to effectively and efficiently management knowledge by harnessing and protecting its knowledge thus maintain a competitive edge. This we have evaluated using the resourced-based view of strategy analysis coined by Grant (1991 citied in Henry 2008). Red Technology Introduction: The term biopharmaceutical means that developing medicines from using living cells, proteins and nucleic acids. None of the two biopharmaceuticals can be same. Over the past decade world has seen enormous development in this sector. Part 2. The Value Chain Procurement Technology Development Human Resource Management Firm Infrastructure Post Sales Service Inbound Logistics RD Production Marketing Sales MARGIN MARGIN Adopted from Micheal E. Porter Competitive Advantage: Creating and sustaining Superior Performance. (1985 p.37) A lot of researchers like Porter (1985, p36) Henry (2008, p103) have emphasized the importance and application of Value chain analysis. We can assess the strength and weaknesses of any biotechnology company by looking at its resources. It expresses important information about strategy and focus of a particular company. By identifying key focus areas, companies can concentrate in achieving competitive advantages. Biotech companies tend to elongate their value chains by getting into alliance with the business partners; this can either be done by incorporating the concept of upstream or downstream value. Henry (2008, p103) depicts the importance and benefits of adopting this strategy. By exploiting the resources of partners, a biotech company can maximize operational efficiency. This operational efficiency leads to achieve competitive advantage. Each industry sector is unique in terms of function. Biotechnology industry, mostly being a manufacturing industry always works differently as compared to a service industry because of the fact that primary and support activities vary from industry to industry. Porter (1985, 38-40) also supports this fact. Like most of other industries, knowledge management plays a vital role in biotechnology sector and is considered to be a primary activity. Prusak as cited in Young (2008, p5) states that knowledge management is all about the information that is in the brain of individuals as an asset and how it is used to leverage into corporate asset. In biotechnology, explicitly it can be transformed into a corporate knowledge paradigm. This idea is also supported by Gorelick, April and Milton. (2004). In biotechnology sector, even if you look at any sub-sector of biotechnology, industry innovation is the foremost weapon to achieve competitive advantage. Cooke and Mayes (1996, p.13-15) also established relationship of innovation and competition. This mean that by innovation biotech companies achieve competitive advantage and in turns get increased market shares with higher growth rates. The innovation is leading to new effective products thus enabling biotech companies to achieve competitive advantage. By looking at the value chain analysis of biotech industry we come to know that the most valued activity is innovation and knowledge management. That is why biotech companies invest heavily in research and development (RD). For biotech industry RD part of value chain is much more focused and valued. In biofuel, biofood and bioagri the value chain is more or the less same, but when we look at biopharmaceutical and bioinformatics, the value chain tends to alter itself a little bit. The activity that also affects biophrmaceuical is that the phase of clinical trial demands a lot of time, capital and management. Procurement Technology Development Human Resource Management Firm Infrastructure Post Sales Service Inbound Logistics RD Production Marketing Sales MARGIN MARGIN Clinical Trials A typical value chain for biopharmaceutical company. Knowledge is a scarce resource and that is why there are very few biotechnology companies in the market. Adopted from Tzokas, N. and Saren, M. By looking at the above figure it is clear that knowledge management is difficult to achieve. Companies transform their knowledge-based and skills-based information with equipment-based knowledge to create competitive advantage. Theses factors build an organizational culture of innovation and the stake holders like employee and customers force company to come up with new ideas We need to investigate about the potential contribution of each stakeholder-based knowledge pool to the strategic investments, plots and projections undertaken by the biotech firms. The long term development effort needs trust relationship from stockholders that the deliverable of RD can result in to a competitive advantage. This can be done by making multidimensional plans linking knowledge requirements and knowledge pools, thus evolving a knowledge space in which the strategic issues of the firm and its stakeholders can be positioned. As such knowledge space and associated distances can be used as navigational instruments for knowledge utilization. White Technology Biotechnology is now used as a very wide term, but we can say that in general term that it the use of organisms by human . In recent years and past also researchers all over the world got new techniques and ideas to develop biotechnology and changing the future. the most known invention of biotechnology is cloning of animal as well as of name. This amazing technology works at visual as well as molecular level. INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY Industrial biotechnology is recognized everywhere in the world weather to prepare consumer goods, material, chemical.( www.liebertpub.com,12:04) Industrial Biotechnology is the premier forum for this critical field and the only publication bridging biotechnology RD with later-stage commercialization for all industrial and environmental applications . it include fooding items ,textiles, automobiles, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and body care products and many other products which we use in our daily life. The growing companies in many countries are taking help of biotechnology. By this companies make promise to the public to deliver new and improved products to their customers. Industrial biotechnology is of two types red and white. Red technology is now ignored by the companies and very less companies are dedicated with white biotechnology. PEST ANALYSIS POLITICAL FACTORS The first and the foremost factor to go through in pest analysis is the political factor. Researchers has emphasizes a lot on this factor. One such researcher is Jobber (2007, p79) who is of the opinion that Political and Legal issues can influence marketing decisions by setting the rules by which business can be conducted. Union Laws, Collusion, Abuse of market dominance, acquisitions and mergers, state aid and national laws are few of the political factors that reshape the companies. This factor includes all the political effects which affect the company or an organization. In some business political issues are much higher than any other companies but in case of industrial biotechnology government supports it and make policies to amend it or to improve it so that the future of a country can get improved and standard of living can be increased. All those organizations which do experiments on different methods of industrial biotechnology, government gives rebate from taxes pass legislations and create new departments to look at their working procedures. Strong legislation makes the Through legislation biotech companies are getting their products and processes patented. The biotech companies usually invest heavily in RD and come up with innovative products; these deliverables are end result of knowledge management. By getting the patent biotech companies make sure that their intellectual property right is secured and hence they achieve competitive advantage as no other company can imitate that. In the case of biopharmaceutical, the main governing body is FDA (Foods and Drugs Administration, USA). FDA ECONOMIC FACTOR Economic environment is the second most important factor in PEST analysis. Factors that affect consumer buying power and spending patterns Kotler et al (1999, p158) As evident from the various researchers, monetary policy, interests and exchange rates, income distribution, change in purchasing power, change in spending patterns, availability and rising cost of energy, labor and raw material has lead to significant changing in business world. World economy is in recession, so is the case of UKs. Unemployment ratio has gone up; peoples purchasing power is going down with a less savings. People are naturally focused more on spending towards necessities. Incomes are low. In this case consumer will move toward those products which saves their money and bio-products are one of those products which are cheap and reusable without damaging the envoirment and causing pollution. Envoirment issues are to be considered when it comes to shopping point of view and traveling. Legislation Banerjee, (1998) as cited in Charter and Polonsky (1999, p31), states that The threat of tougher legislation and the rising costs of complying with environmental regulations are possible motivating factors for firms to incorporate environmental concerns in their strategies. Tougher legislation can affect a firm in two ways: first the cost of compliance becomes prohibitive, second, legislation can require substantial changes in product or package design or distribution channels. (Taking back used thing) Public Concern Another important reason for firms to develop an international orientation and strategy is the rise in public concern for the environment. There are literally hundreds of opinion polls on the environment conducted in Europe, Asia and USA. Charter and Polonsky (1999, p32) The need to maintain a good public image and respond to public concerns can lead to firms adopting corporate environmentalism. Charter and Polonsky (1999, p33) Need for competitive advantage There are numerous cases where the installation of new environmentally friendly technologies has reduced costs for firms Charter and Polonsky (1999, p35) Social factors Social / cultural factors include Demographics forces, World Population growth, Age distribution, household structures and social factors. According to Kotler et al (1999, p153) the European and American societies are evidencing huge demographic shifts. Technological Factors Kotler et al. (1999, p165) Forces that create new technologies, creating new product and market opportunities. Those companies which have good knowledge about the new products can develop those and can attract new and existing customers. By this method apart from new technology awareness among public will also able to increase. Companies with better knowledge will develop new products in order to spread awarness among all sectors of consumers. Bibliography? Biofuels Introduction Biotechnology Biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life. Biotechnology is an important innovative tool to attain The target the various levels example Bio fuels Bio informative, Bio medics, agriculture Biotechnology proficiency can serve to increase biomass yield, improve crop quality, and convert agriculture waste into bio fuels. (whatistechtarget n.d) Bio fuel It is also knows as agro fuel, these fuels are mainly derived from Biomass or Bio waste. Its often derived from plants and animals. Bio fuel is used faster growing modern technology for transporting sector. Liquid form of fuel is required for most vehicles is this convenient for storage and delivery, hence the bio mass is converted to liquid form. Bio fuel plays a virtual role in modern fuel manufacturing as they are renewable source of energy. Ethanol is the most commonly used Bio fuel in the world particularly in Brazils and largest exporters Asia, Europe and America are the some major producer of bio gases Lleading fuel companies like Bps and Shells company they involved in research and development in bio fuels. (biofuel,n.d) Generic strategies Porters alter the system by reducing its down to three best strategies. Overall Cost leadership Differentiation strategies Focus strategy strategies Overall cost leadership: A firm produced standard product by low cost and also take responsibility of economic scale and experience curve effect. market share is advantage. Differentiation strategies: A company is aimed at broad market. the product must some special feature like advance technology, brand image, etc Focus strategies: In this focus strategies a firm concentrated in market and particular group of consumer. (Reference) Overall cost leadership ? Bio fuel are the cheapest form of fuel you can ever get they dont need big investment in new distribution system but just the basic establishing plant is enough to produce them bio fuel mostly involves in long term investment. Hence Initial investment is very crucial. Its been assessed that share holders all over the world show keen interest in investing huge amount of money in this upcoming promising sector. Differentiation strategies? Bio fuel is renewable source of energy unlike others fuels they have less emission of air pollutants. Hence they are environment friendly; they are very low cost so they can match all the price of leading fuels. The impact of Hybrid cars and green cars with play a massive role in decreasing global warming. Focus strategies? Bio fuel industry will create a big employment opportunities all over the world and helps the countrys economy to develop as well. They provide jobs at all levels even form farmers to scientists. This industry has been welcomed by all countries and they are trying to be innovative to improve this sector all over the world. Most government offer discount and tax reduction on green cars thus encouraging people to buy them. This difference makes the bio fuel market to be more competitive in the fuel market. In forward planning about the global warming all nation now concentrate on bio fuel as they play a vital role in helping to control the pollution. APPLICATION OF PORTERS THEORY TO BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY Biotech industry has a varied range of applications like in agriculture, molecular biology, health care, pharma sector, chemical industry, environment related and so on. Porters five forces theory helps us to understand and interpret the business processes. This knowledge can be translated to gain a competitive edge over the competitors. This theory is also used to assess the profits that can be generated in the proposed business scenario or the services or products. According to this theory, the five forces that decide the competitive power of the firm in the industry are as follows, Threat of new entrants In the biotech industry, intellectual property is the most important asset. The firms in this industry are heavily dependent on funding to sustain the research and development activities. And very negligible revenue is generated by the firm till the product is developed. So finance is one of the major barrier that keeps away new entrants from the industry. Another barrier that deters the new entrants is the want of specialized knowledge in the area of research or development. Patent rights and proprietary rights also act as barriers to some extent. In some cases where knowledge and patent rights are easily overcome, many small players come into the picture. Although entry is easy for smaller companies, sustenance would be very difficult in this industry. Suppliers As discussed earlier, intellectual property is the most important asset in this industry. The biotech firms usually do not heavily rely on the suppliers. The tools, kits, equipment, chemicals and all other requirements are highly specialized. However small companies who either fail to explore new channels of distribution or who cannot afford the traditional channels of distribution, are at a loss, as they are compelled to enter into marketing alliances. Buyers The power of buyers is not uniform throughout the biotech arena. Earlier, the pharma companies were not affected by the buyers as the customers did not have or had a very little say about the product. The pharma companies had marketing alliances with the hospitals, pharmacists and agents. So the buyer power was less. In case of firms where the major purchasers are the governments or the hospitals, the buyers are strong. But now the health care companies, insurance companies and common man have entered the arena. The increasing price sensitivity of this new group of buyers is forcing the biotech companies to cut the prices and therefore the profit margin is becoming less. In addition to this, governments in some developing countries are pressurizing the biotech companies to take some social responsibility. ( as in the case of providing vaccines for epidemics at an economical price.) So there is a clear shift and the buyers power is increasing. Substitutes The availability of substitutes also depends on the kind of bitech firm/product. If the knowledge and patent rights are not properly protected, the investment in Research and Development (R D) cannot be recovered. If the patent can be easily overcome, some other company can simply copy the formula/application to offer the product at a much cheaper price. So the formulae/knowledge are to be carefully guarded through patenting and Intellectual Property (IP) rights. In some cases, cheaper chemical product alternatives may be available to the sophisticated and more accurate biotech products. Rivalry The competition rivalry is too intense in the biotech industry. Market analysis shows that only 1% of the biotech firms manage to make a profit. Biotech industry is largely dominated by few large firms although there are hundreds of smaller companies. All the firms are struggling to translate their RD efforts into a breakthrough innovation/product. This innovation could potentially change the fate of the firm overnight. So the Intellectual Property is carefully guarded and the rivalry is extremely high in this industry. For example, In U.S, 82 % of biotech firms make 0 % profit, 76 % of firms have less than 50 employees and only 30 companies have more than 300 employees. Porters five forces theory certainly helps in understanding the pros and cons, the opportunities and threats in the business situation. This theory definitely aids in evolving a business strategy. but this theory may not be of great help in assessing the degree of ease or difficulty or profitability in dealing with the business situation. In this context, this theory does not consider the following strategic influences like, Industry merges and acquisitions have become the norm of the day and the consequences of such deals cannot be assessed and is not taken into consideration. Research and innovation has the potential to dramatically change the face of the industry. As new discoveries/innovations occur, many new threats/opportunities spring up. This makes the biotech industry a highly vulnerable one. This aspect is left out by the theory.

Artificial Intelligence and Angelology :: Technology Science Computers Essays

Artificial Intelligence and Angelology ABSTRACT: Recently, as I have become more computer-literate, I have noticed some interesting parallels between computer mechanisms and Aquinas’ metaphysics of angelic faculties. The present essay expands on some of the analogies which Aquinas himself, though no proponent of AI theory, might have found interesting. One of the philosophy newsgroups on the Internet is entitled "comp.ai.philosophy." This group features constant variations on questions such as: how close can artificial intelligence (particularly computers) approximate to human consciousness? is free will reducible to neurological mechanisms? and so forth. From my unscientific sampling, I would estimate that the clientele of this newsgroup is about evenly split between those who tend towards a reductive materialism, and those who maintain that consciousness or some element in human consciousness is not reducible to neural structures or functions. So the classical "Hobbes vs. Berkeley" debate continues on into the twenty-first millennium. One of the problems facing those who theorize about the independence and irreducibility of consciousness is the fact that it is difficult to conceptualize the essence of consciousness, as distinct from the sensations, feelings, etc. that are often associated with consciousness. Here we are definitely getting into abstract metaphysics. Medieval philosophers such as Aquinas, Duns Scotus and Suarez faced up to this challenge with a little help from Christian revelation, by speculating about the characteristics and functions of angels or "separate substances," who would presumably exemplify consciousness in its "pure" state, without any distracting admixtures. In this paper, I would like to take a look in particular at Aquinas' theory of separate substances. With this theory, we bypass the old question of the reducibility or irreducibility of consciousness to its material conditions, and we also find, in my opinion, some interesting analogies to contemporary computer technology. It would be too much to hope that these analogies, even if substantial, would instigate a revival of interest in Angelology among technophiles. But those interested in the metaphysics of the mind-body problem may find them suggestive: Microprocessors and Angelic Self-possession: The microprocessors of today's computers are integrated circuits which contain the CPU on a single chip. The latest developments, with variable clock speeds now often exceeding 200 MHz, include Intell's Pentium chip, the IBM/Apple/Motorola PowerPC chip, as well as chips from Cyrix and AMD. The CPU chip is the heart of the computer; only memory and input-output devices have to be added. A small fan might be added on top of the fastest chips to cool them down, but in the chip itself there are no moving parts, no complex gaps between the movement being imparted and that which imparts the movement.

France’s chemical giant

DrumheadIn 1995 Fisons plc was acquired by Pennsylvania-based Rhone-Poulenc Rorer, Inc. , in bend entirely owned by France ‘s chemical giant Rhone-Poulenc S.A. Though its position among the universe ‘s pharmaceutical companies was later subsumed in beds of corporate ownership, Fisons had boasted a history of more than 300 old ages in concern before its dismantlement. Founded as a flour factory in the late eighteenth century, it rapidly developed into one of the universe ‘s largest fertiliser manufacturers. As the fertiliser market matured into a low-profit trade good over the class of the twentieth century, the company diversified into horticultural merchandises, pharmaceuticals, and scientific instruments. In the mid-1980s, Fisons divested its fertiliser involvements to concentrate on the extremely profitable medical side of the concern. By 1993 the company was the universe ‘s third-largest maker of scientific instruments and ranked among the universe ‘ s 60 largest pharmaceutical concerns. Fisons ‘ weak research and development attempts and unequal selling attempts, nevertheless, led to one-year losingss and a steep diminution in its stock monetary value mid-decade. The British company tried to contend off the progresss of its Franco-American rival, but relinquished ownership in the autumn of 1995. Fisons plc began as a flour factory and bakeshop founded by James Fisons in Barningham, England, in the late eighteenth century. In 1789 a boy, besides named James, started a maltings concern that expanded into Stowmarket and Thetford, two river towns that helped the household concerns expand. James Fison and Sons was formed in 1808, and by 1840 the house was entering & A ; lb ; 100,000 in one-year gross revenues. Subsequently that decennary, the household entered the underdeveloped field of fertilisers and moved the concern ‘s central office to Ipswich. Within a few old ages, Fisons had built a manure plant and was bring forthing its ain sulphuric acid. As fertilisers became the company ‘s primary concern, pesticides based on sulfurs were added to the merchandise mix. In 1895 the company was split into two parts: James Fison and Sons and Joseph Fison and Co. During World War I, Fisons helped do explosives, but the company returned to fertilizer by the terminal of the war to buoy dwindling nutrient production. When fertiliser monetary values plunged after the war, the two Fison companies, along with two others with which they had late merged, were reunited to organize Fison, Packard, Prentice and Co. ( Fisons ) in 1929. During the 1930s, Fisons began to spread out through acquisitions. The company ‘s most important add-on was the Anglo-Continental Guano Works Ltd. , which doubled the size of Fisons. Anglo-Continental was a budding pudding stone with a pharmaceutical subordinate, Genatosan ; Fisons was therefore brought into that moneymaking market. Fisons ‘ acquisitions continued throughout the 1930s, and by 1939, with 39 subordinates, it was the largest fertiliser company in Great Britain. During World War II Fisons felt the force per unit area of both a manpower deficit and increased demand for fertilisers. Some of the company ‘s fabrication workss were bombed every bit good. The company name was shortened to Fisons Ltd. for marketing lucidity in 1942, and it emerged from the war with about two-thirds of Great Britain ‘s fertiliser market. Fisons made more acquisitions after the war ‘s terminal, first buying Wiffen and Son, a all right chemicals maker. The new subordinate became portion of Fisons ‘s chemicals and biologicals division, headed by Genatosan. The Wiffen acquisition included the Loughborough Glass Company, which would subsequently develop into Fisons ‘s Scientific Equipment division. The purchase of Pest Control Limited during the 1950s brought Fisons into agrochemicals, a market that was closely related to the fertiliser concern. Fisons hoped to capitalise on the two Fieldss ‘ common research, development, and distribution methods. In 1968 research workers at Genatosan discovered disodium cromoglycate ( DSCG ) , which was developed as the branded anti-allergenic Intal. The drug differed from its rivals because it was a contraceptive, whereas others were taken after the oncoming of allergic symptoms. Intal gross revenues boosted the pharmaceutical division ‘s net incomes from & A ; lb ; 1.14 million in 1968 to & A ; lb ; 2.43 million in 1970 and & A ; lb ; 5.6 million in 1973. By 1971 Fisons had organized its many subordinates into four divisions: Fertilizers, Agrochemicals, Pharmaceuticals, and Scientific Equipment. The company developed these primary concerns through acquisitions every bit good as merchandise and market enlargement. Acquisitions were focused geographically in Europe, Australia, and the United States. Fertilizers contributed 50 per centum of the pudding stone ‘s one-year gross revenues at that clip, and Fisons fought to keep a competitory border in Great Britain ‘s fertiliser market: 80 per centum of the division ‘s gross revenues were in its place state. However, the supply side of this division was hamstrung, since its primary ammonium hydroxide provider was besides its primary rival, Imperial Chemical Industries plc. During the first half of the 1970s, Fisons tried to rectify this state of affairs by increasing its majority purchasing in planetary markets, particularly sponsoring Morocco. Morocco increased its monetary values six-fold in 1973, though, and other providers rapidly followed suit. At the same clip, U.K. monetary value controls held fertiliser monetary values below the universe market monetary value for ammonium hydroxide, efficaciously extinguishing Fisons ‘s fertiliser net incomes. Fisons ‘s Agrochemicals group besides ran into problem during the seventiess, when it lost a valuable client, Ciba-Geigy Ltd. Fisons tried to back up this group by increasing capital investings, particularly in the United States. The company besides boosted research and development financess, but since most of this division ‘s attempts focused on making replacements for merchandises that were already on the market, Fisons lacked a strong merchandising suit. During the 1970s, anti-allergens comprised between 60 and 70 per centum of the Pharmaceutical division ‘s gross revenues, but Intal had merely captured 6.1 per centum of the anti-allergy market, which was led by Glaxo ‘s Ventolin. After a decennary of research, the division was covering a serious blow when Fisons decided non to market its new drug, Proxicromil, a replacement to Intal, because it was found to do malignant neoplastic disease in animate beings. With Intal ‘s unrenewable patents set to run out in 1982, the Pharmaceutical division ‘s chances were non good. In 1972 the Scientific Equipment Division was spun off from the Pharmaceutical division, and acquisitions in Germany and Australia, every bit good as the purchase of Britain ‘s Gallenkamp, helped Fisons go Great Britain ‘s top scientific equipment maker. Many of Gallenkamp ‘s contracts were with the authorities, universities, and infirmaries, nevertheless, many of which cut their outgos in the recessive 1970s. Fisons ‘s Horticulture division was separated from the Agrochemical division in 1977. It produced and marketed amateur and professional horticulture merchandises, and its strengths were in peat-based merchandises, particularly the popular and well-established Fisons Gro-Bags — self-contained, nutritionally balanced dirt pokes. The peat operations were extended with a new works in Yorkshire and the acquisition of Howlett ‘s, a company with peat militias in Cumbria and Scotland. Although it was a new focal point for Fisons, gardening was really one of the company ‘s most unafraid concerns by the terminal of the seventiess. It was vertically incorporate and held commanding portions of the markets in which it operated: 50 per centum of the lawn fertiliser market ; 20 per centum of the solid fertiliser market ; 30 per centum of the peat market ; and 12 per centum of Great Britain ‘s weed and pest control concern. Throughout the 1970s, Fisons had gone into debt to do a cloudy reorganisation and shore up up its historical focal point — fertilisers — merely as competition and planetary consolidation in this market eroded net incomes. At the same clip, high involvement rates and rising prices dug into the net incomes Fisons managed to gain through its other operations. By 1980 Fisons ‘s chances looked dim. The Fertilizers division was runing at a loss ; Agrochemicals could non trust to vie with the research and development spendings of bigger rivals ; the Scientific Equipment division was enduring from authorities cutbacks ; gardening was a little, developing concern ; and the Pharmaceuticals division, a primary profit-maker, had all of a sudden lost its lone long-run growing merchandise. Fisons was on the brink of bankruptcy. John Kerridge was promoted to main executive officer ( CEO ) from executive manager in mid-1980 and given the undertaking of change by reversaling Fisons ‘ downward spiral. He began the reformation by cutting costs, shuting down four production units and three farms in the Fertilizer division, so extinguishing more than 1,000 places in the group. Fisons ‘s corporate central offices were moved from high-rent London back to Ipswich, and economizations were made in the Scientific Equipment division every bit good. Kerridge ‘s most cardinal alteration was the sale of the Fertilizer division to Norsk Hydro a.s. in 1982 for & A ; lb ; 59 million. The divestment was a extremist alteration for Fisons and involved the disposal of what had been the foundation of the company for more than a century, every bit good as the division with the most gross revenues. The troublesome Agrochemicals division was sold the undermentioned twelvemonth to Schering A.G. for & A ; lb ; 60 milli on. These divestments left Fisons with three primary concerns: Pharmaceuticals, Horticulture, and Scientific Equipment. The pharmaceutical group was expanded with the 1980 purchase of Great Britain ‘s Charnwood Pharmaceuticals, Australia ‘s Orbit Chemical Pty. Ltd. in 1982, and Italy ‘s Intersint in 1983. Great Britain ‘s Weddel Pharmaceutical was acquired in 1983 and merged with Charnwood, which would specialise in generic drugs. Fisons ‘s Horticultural operations grew geographically through a joint venture with Canada ‘s Western Peat Moss in 1980, and the acquisition of Langley Peat North Ltd. of Alberta in 1983. These purchases gave Fisons entree to big peat supplies and the North American market. The British operations were supplanted with the acquisition of Webb and Bees seed operations from Shell Holdings ( U.K. ) Ltd. in the early 1980s. The Scientific Equipment division grew through the add-on of Watson Victor, a New Zealand distributer of research lab equipment, in 1982. Haake-Butler Instruments, of which Fisons owned 67 per centum, was later founded in the United States. Overall, Kerridge ‘s cardinal alterations improved Fisons ‘s balance sheet dramatically ; the corporation went from doing one-year involvement payments of & A ; lb ; 13 million in 1980 to holding no net adoptions in 1983. Fisons was even unafraid plenty to do a successful stock offer of & A ; lb ; 28 million that twelvemonth. The Pharmaceutical division ‘s continued heavy research and development outgos resulted in two new drugs: DSCG-based Opticrom, released in 1984, and Tilade, a new asthma intervention, introduced in 1986. This division acquired Laboratorios Caesen, of Spain, in 1984, and Bracco de Mexico in 1986. Kerridge was made president in 1984, and he clarified the scheme he had been utilizing to turn Fisons around: â€Å" We wish to run in industries of built-in attraction, which have potency for growing and a record of profitableness of successful participants, [ and ] we wish to be in clearly defined concern sections where Fisons can moderately draw a bead on to being an effectual rival by virtuousness of its size and its fiscal and managerial resources. † The company would no longer run on the peripheries of its chosen markets, as it had in the seventiess. For illustration, Fisons concentrated on the gardening and scientific equipment markets, which were non yet consolidated or dominated by a individual powerful company. Fisons hoped to be that company. Fisons burst onto the U.S. market for scientific equipment, which was place to 40 per centum of the universe ‘s research activity, with the acquisition of Curtin Matheson Scientific Inc. ( CMS ) in 1984. CMS was the second-largest distributer of scientific equipment in the United States. Fisons besides purchased United Diagnostics Inc. and Pacific Hemostasis Laboratories Inc. , which were combined with CMS to give the latter fabrication capacity. By the beginning of 1985, Fisons ‘ Scientific division was the third-largest organisation of its type in the universe and the largest outside the United States. Fisons continued to turn, geting in 1985 Murphy Chemical, which helped widen the Horticulture division ‘s portfolio of merchandises, extend selling in Europe and North America, and shore up Fisons ‘s peat supplies. Subsequently in the decennary, the Horticulture division would sell its 50 per centum portion of Asef-Fison B.V. to its joint-venture spouse, DSM Agro Specialties B.V. In 1986 Fisons bought Applied Research Laboratories, a taking maker of scientific equipment with planetary selling capacity, and two old ages later it purchased Union Scientific Limited, a Hong Kong company. Several of import acquisitions were besides made by the Pharmaceutical division in the late eightiess. Italchimici SpA, an Italian house, and Pennwalt Corporation ‘s pharmaceutical division, a U.S. maker of ethical and nonprescription drugs, were purchased in 1988. A Gallic company, Gerbitol S.A. , brought expertness in cardiovascular medical specialty, antibiotics, and dietetic addendums to the division in 1989. In all, with the aid of its important 1980s acquisitions, Fisons ‘s pre-tax net incomes increased by an norm of 56 per centum per twelvemonth to & A ; lb ; 230 million ( US $ 410 million ) . The corporation ‘s market capitalisation rose from & A ; lb ; 40 million in 1980 to & A ; lb ; 3 billion in 1990. The 1990 purchase of VG Instruments, a maker of mass spectrometers and surface analysis instruments, more than doubled Fisons ‘ end product of analytical instruments and catapulted the Scientific Equipment division to the figure three topographic point in the planetary market place. It looked as if Fisons had launched its 2nd back-to-back decennary of growing and prosperity. By the terminal of 1991, nevertheless, it was clear that jobs in the Pharmaceutical division had dragged the full company down. Late that twelvemonth, Fisons revealed that two of its of import new drugs, Opticrom for hay febrility and Imferon for anaemia, had been recalled from the U.S. market after the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) denied blessing of the company ‘s British mills. Harmonizing to a 1992 Economist article, the FDA ‘s everyday cheque of Fisons ‘ U.K. mill revealed warehouses with holes in their outside walls ; hapless record maintaining ; and â€Å" the possibility of gnawer, insect or avian activity in the [ conveyance ] containers. † Fisons ‘s pre-tax net incomes for 1991 dropped 17 per centum to & A ; lb ; 190 million, and the company faced needed investings of more than & A ; lb ; 25 million to convey its British mill up to U.S. criterions. John Kerridge resigned â€Å" on wellness evidences † in mid-January 1992 and was temporarily replaced by Patrick Egan. In April of that twelvemonth, Egan became president, while Cedric Scroggs was selected as main executive officer. The new leaders decided to sharpen Fisons ‘ focal point on pharmaceuticals and scientific equipment by depriving its OTC drug and horticultural concerns. In November 1992, Fisons agreed to sell its North American OTC drug operations to Swiss drug concern Ciba-Geigy Ltd. for & A ; lb ; 92 million ( US $ 60.3 million ) . This section represented about 50 per centum of Fisons ‘s planetary consumer wellness division gross revenues and 40 per centum of that group ‘s net incomes. Egan and Scroggs recognized that the British company lacked the resources and marketing influence necessary to vie in the American consumer drug market. Fisons ‘s new direction forged a joint development and selling understanding with Allergan Inc. , a U.S. ocular company, early in 1993. The agreement called for Fisons ‘ 400 U.S. sales representative to co-market Allergan ‘s ocular drug Acular. The U.S. company ‘s gross revenues force, in bend, would assist market Fisons ‘ ocular intervention Opticrom. The agreement presumed that Opticrom would be re-registered by the FDA. By early 1993, Fisons had made important betterments in its Opticrom mill, but new FDA reviews had still non resulted in blessing tardily in the twelvemonth. Fisons suffered yet another reverse when it suspended development of an asthma medical specialty, tipredane. The company had been banking on the new drug to bolster its core respiratory concern in the late ninetiess. Tipredane had been licensed by Fisons from Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. and was in the thick of unsuccessful clinical tests in more than a twelve states. The failure of tipredane left Fisons with merely one new drug, remacemide — an epilepsy intervention — in development. In May 1993 Fisons sold its North American gardening concern to a pool led by Macluan Capital Corp. of Vancouver for US $ 60 million in hard currency and used the returns to cut down its debt. Fisons besides planned to sell the balance of its Horticulture division every bit shortly as an chance arose. In July the company sold its consumer wellness merchandises concern in Australia and New Zealand to Warner-Lambert for about US $ 23 million. The sale included the Rosken line of curative skin-care merchandises. Despite Fisons ‘s early 1990s attempts to bolster its pharmaceutical concern, some analysts insisted that the company had neither the research and development strength nor the selling clout necessary to vie in an ethical pharmaceutical concern that demanded frequent find of advanced medical specialties. Industry perceivers anticipated an at hand amalgamation or coup d'etat for Fisons. Those outlooks intensified as Fisons ‘ portion monetary value declined from & A ; lb ; 2.45 in mid-1992 to & A ; lb ; 1.13 by the terminal of 1993. Over the class of the latter twelvemonth, the company ‘s scientific instruments division went & A ; lb ; 16 million into the ruddy. CEO Cedric Scroggs was fired that December, Finance Director Roy Thomas took early ( and presumptively nonvoluntary ) retirement, and Stuart Wallis took the helm of the beat-up house. Throughout the 18 months, Wallis made a valorous and moderately successful attempt to bolster Fisons ‘ stock monetary value. Though the company suffered a loss on 1994, a major reorganisation and divestment plan eliminated at least 1,000 occupations, cut costs, and helped the house ‘s stock monetary value rebound about 75 per centum to & A ; lb ; 1.93 by mid-August 1995. That addition was non plenty to forestall Franco-American rival Rhone-Poulenc Rorer, Inc. ( R-PR ) from doing a hostile & A ; lb ; 1.7 billion ( US $ 2.6 billion ) command for control of Fisons on August 18th. Though some analysts thought the offering monetary value, at 16.7 times expected net grosss, was excessively high, CEO Wallis complained to Chemical Marketing Reporter that the monetary value â€Å" significantly undervalues Fisons. † The British company backed up that averment when it reported a 40 per centum addition in net income, to & A ; lb ; 48.6 million, for the first half of 1995. That happy intelligence helped progress the house ‘s stock to & A ; lb ; 2.60 by the terminal of September. In October, R-PR upped its command of & A ; lb ; 2.65 per portion, or US $ 2.9 billion. Unable to happen a more amicable suer, Fisons accepted the coup d'etat that month. Though the British house and its many subordinates around the universe continued to be listed among R-PR ‘s operations through 1996, it shortly became clear that the tri-centenarian entity would finally discontinue to be. Over the class of 1996 and 1997, R-PR slashed about 3,000 excess occupations in the United States and Great Britain, divested several Fisons divisions ( including the scientific instruments concern ) , and discontinued many of the subsumed company ‘s pharmaceutical research and development plans. For its about US $ 3 billion, Rhone-Poulenc Rorer got an main course into the US $ 15 billion and turning respiratory drug market, or more specifically, the respiratory drug bringing section. At the clip of its purchase, Fisons had two promising bringing media in the development grapevine: a non-CFC aerosol and a dry-powder inhalator. Indeed, Fisons probably played a function in an addition in gross revenues and cyberspace at R-PR from 1995 to 1996. Year-over-year grosss increased six per centum, to US $ 5.4 billion, and net grew by about one-third, to US $ 473.5 million. In November 1997, when Rhone-Poulenc acquired the staying tierce of R-PR that it did non already ain, Fisons ‘ destiny appeared sealed. Officials at the company ‘s U.S. and U.K. central offices early in 1998 asserted that Fisons no longer existed, either as a group of subordinates or a division. Question-1Discuss the grounds from the instance and the usage of theory, the stakeholder direction by this organisation ; chiefly its booby traps? Answer: Question-2How would you hold handled this state of affairs ; suggestions to be rationalized with strong theoretical underpinning? Answer: Question-3At the clip of John Kerridge ‘s surrender, what strategic options did Patrick Egan have to steer the company back to its old glorification? Answer:

Daniel Hale Williams, Heart Surgery Pioneer

Daniel Hale Williams, Heart Surgery Pioneer American physician Daniel Hale Williams (January 18, 1856- August 4, 1931), a pioneer in the field of medicine, was the first African American to perform successful open heart surgery. Dr. Williams also founded Chicagos Provident Hospital and co-founded the National Medical Association. Fast Facts: Dr. Daniel Hale Williams Full Name: Daniel Hale Williams, IIIBorn: January 18, 1856 in Hollidaysburg, PennsylvaniaDied: August 4, 1931 in Idlewild, MichiganParents: Daniel Hale Williams, II and Sarah Price WilliamsSpouse: Alice Johnson (m. 1898-1924)Education: M.D. from Chicago Medical College (now Northwestern University Medical School)Key Accomplishments: First African American to perform successful open heart surgery, founder of Provident Hospital (the first  black owned and operated interracial hospital in the U.S.), and co-founder of the National Medical Association. Early Years Daniel Hale Williams, III, was born on January 18, 1856 to Daniel Hale and Sarah Price Williams in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. His father was a barber and the family, including Daniel and his six siblings, moved to Annapolis, Maryland, when Daniel was a young boy. Shortly after the move, his father died from tuberculosis and his mother moved the family to Baltimore, Maryland. Daniel became a shoemakers apprentice for a while and later moved to Wisconsin, where he became a barber. After graduating from high school, Daniel grew interested in medicine and served as an apprentice to a well known local surgeon, Dr. Henry Palmer. This apprenticeship lasted two years, and then Daniel was accepted to the Chicago Medical College, affiliated with Northwestern University. He graduated in 1883 with an M.D. degree. Career and Accomplishments Dr. Daniel Hale Williams began practicing medicine and surgery at Chicagos South Side Dispensary. He was also the first African American anatomy instructor at Chicago Medical College, where he taught notable future physicians such as Mayo Clinics co-founder Charles Mayo. By 1889, other notable appointments for Dr. Williams included the City Railway Company, the Protestant Orphan Asylum, and the Illinois State Board of Health. These were very unique accomplishments for the time, considering that there were very few black doctors at this point in African American history. Dr. Williams gained a reputation as a highly skilled surgeon whose practice included treatment for all patients, regardless of race. This was life-saving for African Americans at the time because they were not allowed admittance to hospitals. African American doctors were not allowed on staff in hospitals either. In 1890, a friend of Dr. Williams asked him for help as his sister was being denied entrance into nursing school because she was black. In 1891, Dr. Williams founded the Provident Hospital and Nursing Training School. This was the first  black owned and operated interracial hospital in the U.S. and served as a training ground for nurses and African American doctors. First Open Heart Surgery In 1893, Dr. Williams gained notoriety for successfully treating a man, James Cornish, with stab wounds to the heart. Although physicians at the time were aware of the revolutionary works of Louis Pastuer and Joseph Lister in relation to germs and medical surgery, open heart surgery was generally avoided due to the high risk of infection and subsequent death. Williams had no access to X-rays, antibiotics, anesthetics, blood transfusions, or modern equipment. Employing Listers antiseptic technique, he performed the surgery suturing the pericardium (protective lining) of the heart. This would be the first successful heart surgery performed by an African American and second by an American doctor. In 1891, Henry C. Dalton had surgically repaired a pericardial wound of the heart on a patient in St. Louis. Later Years In 1894, Dr. Williams obtained the position of surgeon-in-chief at Freedmens Hospital in Washington, D.C. This hospital served the needs of the poor and newly freed slaves after the Civil War. In four years, Williams transformed the hospital, making dramatic improvements in the admission of surgical cases and drastically reducing the hospitals mortality rate. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams succeeded in the face of discrimination his entire life. In 1895, he co-founded the National Medical Association in response to the American Medical Associations denial of membership to blacks. The National Medical Association became the only national professional organization available for black physicians. In 1898, Williams resigned from Freedmens Hospital and married Alice Johnson, daughter of sculptor Moses Jacob Ezekiel. The newlyweds returned to Chicago, where Williams became chief of surgery at Provident Hospital. Death and Legacy After resigning from his position at Provident Hospital in 1912, Williams was appointed staff surgeon at St. Lukes Hospital in Chicago. Among his many honors, he was named the American College of Surgeons first black fellow. He remained at St. Lukes Hospital until suffering a stroke in 1926. Upon his retirement, Williams spent his remaining days in Idlewild, Michigan, where he died on August 4, 1931. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams would leave a legacy of greatness in the face of discrimination. He demonstrated that African Americans are no less intelligent or valuable than any other Americans. He saved many lives by establishing Provident Hospital and provided proficient medical care, and he also helped train a new generation of African American physicians and nurses. Sources Daniel Hale Willaims : Alumni Exhibit. Walter Dill Scott, University Archives, Northwestern University Library, Northwestern University Archives (NUL), exhibits.library.northwestern.edu/archives/exhibits/alumni/williams.html.Daniel Hale Williams. Biography.com, AE Networks Television, 19 Jan. 2018, www.biography.com/people/daniel-hale-williams-9532269.History - Dr. Daniel Hale Williams. The Provident Foundation, www.providentfoundation.org/index.php/history/history-dr-daniel-hale-williams.Nations Second Open-Heart Surgery Performed In Chicago 119 Years Ago. The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 10 July 2017, www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/09/daniel-hale-williams-perf_n_1659949.html.